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Archaeology | |||
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The Smithsonian Institution receives each year a great many inquiries concerned with archaeology. Therefore, the following information has been prepared to cover topics most frequently encountered: career information, excavation, fieldwork opportunities, artifact identification, and preservation. The information included should satisfy the majority of requests, while also providing avenues along which topics may be pursued further through bibliographic references. You might also consider contacting your local museum, historical society, or archaeological association that deals with matters of regional interest much more than does the Smithsonian.
Career InformationInformation on career opportunities in archaeology may be obtained by writing or calling to the following:
A heavily illustrated magazine that keeps the reader informed of the work of archaeologists and excavations around the world is Archaeology, written for the general public. To subscribe, write to: Archaeology Magazine, Subscription Service, P. O. Box 420423, Palm Coast, FL 32142-0423; or call (800) 829-5122. ExcavationExcavation is the archaeologist's fundamental means of exploring the past. This in itself sounds more simple and straightforward than is actually the case. archaeological field methods are complex, and a great amount of training and supervision is necessary before excavation can be carried out effectively. Therefore, it is imperative that the untrained person should not attempt to perform his or her own excavation. Scientific excavation is not merely a matter of recovering buried artifacts. Artifacts themselves tell us relatively little about an extinct culture. Of more importance is the artifact's "association" or "context", which refers to its location or placement in relation to nearby observed indications of human activities such as living structures, burials, storage pits, fire hearths or work areas. Because it is often impossible or unnecessary to excavate an entire site, the archaeologist must know how to select a portion of the site for excavation that will yield a representative sample of the entire site. Besides techniques of sampling and excavation one must also know something about the environmental conditions at the time the site was occupied. This type of information is obtained through the recovery of pollen, soil, food remains, shell, and plant remains during the course of the excavation. The archaeologist must also be familiar with many dating methods, such as dendrochronology and radiocarbon dating. These require skilled selection and handling of samples, and careful interpretation of the results obtained. Good intentions are no substitute for scientific procedures in archaeology. The excavation of a site inevitably leads to destruction. Therefore, if the archaeologist does not recover all of the necessary information, it is lost forever. There is no way of going back to correct a mistake in digging, or a failure to record the proper details. Furthermore, the analysis of the data recovered requires skill and training in anthropological techniques. Even here, though, the archaeologist's task is not finished; for if the results of the excavation are not reported in a scientific fashion in a journal or other publications, where they can be read and studied by other archaeologists, the results of the excavation are useless and digging should not have been undertaken in the first place. Salvage archaeology is another important aspect of the field in these days of construction activities. It is important to attempt to recover these remains before they are destroyed. If a site is found that is in danger of being destroyed, it is best to bring this to the attention of a professional archaeologist before it is too late. A call to a local museum or university with an anthropology department informing them of the danger is usually the best thing in this case. There are several ways of acquiring the skills necessary for proper archaeological excavation, reporting, and publishing. The best of these, of course, is by enrolling in a university program in anthropology or archaeology. Many universities and colleges give courses in archaeological techniques and enrollment in these can often be arranged even though a person is not a full-time member of the student body. Night school and museum education programs often provide similar courses. The American Anthropological Association (4350 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 640, Arlington, VA 22203) publishes each year a Guide to Departments of Anthropology which lists members of the departments with their specialties. In addition, there are several books which are useful introductions to the beginning archaeologist, some of which are listed in the reading list at the end of this leaflet. Finally, it is important to put your skills to work by excavating a site under the supervision of an experienced archaeologist. These opportunities are best obtained through field schools or by participating in excavations of local archaeological societies. Fieldwork OpportunitiesExcellent opportunities for inexperienced archaeologists (minimum age is usually 16) are through the field schools run by many universities and colleges across the country. These schools often operate by conducting a half day of supervised excavation while the other half will be reserved for cataloguing, cleaning, photography of specimens, or for lectures. Generally, the applicant pays a fee, which includes food, lodging, and equipment for a five to eight week session. Transportation costs are borne by the student. Because a list of field school offerings changes from year to year, any list soon becomes out-of-date. The Archaeological Institute of America (AIA) produces a field school bulletin. Write: Kendall-Hunt Publishing Co., Order Dept.,4050 Westmark Drive, Dubuque, IA 52002; (800) 228-0810. The list includes opportunities for volunteers, staff positions, field schools, and general information, an excellent resource for a beginning archaeologist. The AIA listing, which also includes the names and addresses of state archaeologists, costs $15.00 ($13.00 for members). Usually a field school conducts excavations in the vicinity of the institution, so regional preferences may influence your choice of application. Since some schools may be filled, it is advisable to apply to several concurrently. This should be done during the winter months. Enrollment is usually filled by April or May. Academic credit is often given for field school participation. Sometimes an archaeological course must be taken as a prerequisite to field school acceptance. Possibilities for fieldwork in the Old World and South America are generally more limited than those within the United States. High costs of transportation and maintenance of a field crew in these areas usually result in only the most experienced students being chosen. However, there are opportunities in most of these projects for volunteers. Here the usual arrangement is for the volunteer to pay his or her own transportation and sometimes his or her maintenance in the field. Volunteer workers may decide to spend only a portion of the summer at an excavation, reserving the remainder of their available time for travel. Many Americans have worked in France, England and the Middle and Near East in this capacity. Many states have amateur archaeological organizations, often assisted by the State archaeologist, which conduct summer or weekend excavations and hold meetings to discuss the results of their work. Usually these societies are regional or state organizations. Often they have many competent archaeologists as members and publish a society bulletin or newsletter with reports of archaeological excavations. Affiliation with these organizations can provide a student or amateur archaeologist with valuable training in excavation and publication. To locate your local or regional archaeological society, contact the chairman of the anthropology department of a nearby university who should be able to direct you further. Two further possibilities, among many, for fieldwork experience are Earthwatch and The Center for American Archaeology. For Earthwatch projects, participants contribute toward the funding of scientific research expeditions on which scholars and students then work as a team. For information write to: Earthwatch, 680 Mount Auburn St., Watertown, Massachusetts 02172. The Center for American Archaeology, Kampsville Archaeological Center conducts educational research programs for junior and senior high school students, college students and the non-professional, and separate workshops for teachers. The long-range goal of the program is to record a comprehensive history of 12,000 years of human life in the lower Illinois River Valley. For information write: Center for American Archaeology, Kampsville Archaeological Center, Kampsville, Illinois 62053. Artifact IdentificationVery often a request comes from someone who has found an archaeological specimen and wants it identified. This is not always an easy task. It is often difficult to give the age and cultural affiliation of a single artifact for several reasons. First, as previously noted, it is the excavation context and the associated tools that have the most meaning to the archaeologist. Single artifacts or isolated groups of artifacts rarely have much scientific significance, particularly if they are not accompanied with precise information as to their original location and chronological contexts. Hence it is usually best to have specimens identified by specialists whose interests are in the area where the specimen originated. For this reason questions of this sort can usually be most effectively answered by the appropriate regional museum, state archaeologist, or archaeological society, or archaeologist of a local college or university. In addition, there are several books which can be referred to for information on different cultural groups and periods. The most useful are those of Chard, Jennings, and Willey. All have good summaries with detailed regional coverage and good illustrations and bibliographies. Finally, the third problem is that in many cases even the specialists are not yet able to identify many specimens. The preservation of artifacts of bone or other perishable material is another topic of interest. This is a highly technical field, but there are some simple procedures which can be followed. Unfortunately, there is as yet no simple handbook available, and sometimes it is difficult to obtain the necessary chemicals. In this case, your local museum may be able to help you. For most problems of conservation your can refer to books by Plenderleith and Leechman. Finally, there is frequently an interest in the value of archaeological specimens. In general it can be said that arrowheads and other similar Indian artifacts have little monetary value. Rather, value lies in the amount of information that can be gleaned from the specimen by archaeologists trained to know the particular styles of different cultures. Other more elaborate artifacts may have considerable market value. These occasionally find their way into the art market. Museums usually are not interested in purchasing single artifacts, preferring entire collections accompanied by detailed information, and even then purchase is very rare. Their most useful collections come from the scientifically documented research of qualified field workers. The collection of artifacts for the purpose of selling them individually literally ruins the importance of a site for science and is therefore a highly destructive act. In fact, many states (as well as most nations) have strongly forced antiquities laws to prevent excavation by untrained persons. See Appendix V in Robbins' Handbook for a listing of these laws. In addition, there are also laws in many countries prohibiting the export of antiquities, and the U.S. customs authorities help enforce some of these laws. There is also a growing number of responsible museums who refuse to accept or to borrow any archaeological items unaccompanied by evidence of authorized export according to the laws of their countries of origin. The Smithsonian strongly supports these laws and policies. Suggested Readings in ArchaeologyThe following is a list of some of the major introductory books and journals in the field. Their bibliographies are extensive and should be consulted by those wishing more detailed information. General IntroductionBrennan, Louis A. Beginner's Guide to Archaeology. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1973. __________. Artifacts of Prehistoric America. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1971. Butzer, Karl W. Archaeology as Human Ecology: Method and Theory For a Contextual Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Deetz, James. Invitation to Archaeology. Garden City: Natural History Press, 1967. Fagan, Brain M. Ancient North America: The Archaeology of a Continent. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1991. ________. In the Beginning: An Introduction to Archaeology. 6th ed. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1988. Fleming, Stuart. Dating in Archaeology: A Guide to Scientific Techniques. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1977. Hester, James J. Introduction to Archaeology. 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1982. Hester, Thomas R., Robert Heizer, and John A. Graham. Field Methods in Archaeology. 6th ed. Palo Alto: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1975. Hole, Frank and Robert Heizer. Prehistoric Archaeology: A Brief Introduction. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1977. Joukowsky, Martha. A Complete Manual of Field Archaeology: Tools and Techniques of Fieldwork for Archaeologists. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1980. Robbins, Maurice and Mary B. Irving. The Amateur Archaeologist's Handbook. 3rd ed. New York: Harper & Row Pubs., 1981. Sharer, Robert J., and Ashmore, Wendy. Archaeology: Discovering Our Past. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Pub., 1987. Thomas, David Hurst.Archaeology. 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1989. Trigger, Bruce. Beyond History: The Methods of Prehistory. (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology Series., edited by George and Louise Spindler) New York: Irvington Pubs., 1982. Willey, Gordon R. and Jeremy Sabloff. A History of American Archaeology. 2nd ed. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman Co., 1980. Willey, Gordon R. Portraits in American Archaeology: Remembrances of Some Distinguished Americanists. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989. General PrehistoryBonnichsen, Robson, and Turnmire, Karen L., eds. Clovis: Origins and Adaptations. Peopling of the Americas Publications. Corvallis, OR: Center for the Study of the First Americans, Oregon State University, 1991. Bryan, Alan Lyle, ed. New Evidence for the Pleistocene Peopling of the Americas. Orono, ME: Center for the Study of Early Man, University of Maine, 1986. Clark, Grahame. World Prehistory, and Outline. 2nd ed. London: Cambridge University Press, 1970. Coe, Michael D.; Snow, Dean; and Benson, Elizabeth. Atlas of Ancient America. New York: Facts on File, 1986. Daniel, Glyn. Short History of Archaeology. (Ancient Peoples and Places Series no. 100.) New York: Thames and Hudson, 1981. Fagan, Brian. Ancient North America: The Archaeology of a Continent. 2nd ed. NY: Thames Hudson, 1995. ________. Kingdoms of Gold, Kingdoms of Jade: The Americas Before Columbus. NY: Thames & Hudson, 1991. Jennings, Jesse D. Prehistory of North America. 3rd. ed. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Pubs., 1989. Jennings, Jesse D., ed. Ancient North Americans. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1983. Ancient South Americans, 1983. Jennings, Jesse D., ed. Ancient Native Americans. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1978. Justice, Noel D. Stone Age Spear and Arrow Points of the Midcontinental and Eastern United States. A Modern Survey and Reference. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1988. Mead, Jim I., and Melzer, David J., eds. Environments and Extinctions: Man in Late Glacial North America. Orono, ME: Center for the Study of Early Man, University of Maine at Orono, 1985. Meyer, Karl E. The Plundered Past. New York: Macmillan, 1977. Snow, Dean R. The Archaeology of North America. (The Indians of North America Series.) New York: Chelsea House, 1989. ________. The Archaeology of New England. (New World Archaeology Record Series.) New York: Academic Press, 1980. Snow, Dean R., ed. Native American Prehistory: A Critical Bibliography. (Newberry Library Center for the History of the American Indian Bibliographical.) Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980. Trigger, Bruce G., ed. Native Shell Mounds of North America. (The North American Indian Series.) Garland Pub., 1986. Willey, Gordon, ed. Pre-Colombian Archaeology: Readings from Scientific American. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1980. Williams, Stephen. Fantastic Archaeology: The Wild Side of North American Prehistory. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991. Historical ArchaeologyDeetz, James. In Small Things Forgotten: The Archaeology of Early American Life. New York: Doubleday, 1977. Jelks, Edward B. Historical Dictionary of North American Archaeology. New York: Greenwood Press, 1988. Leone, Mark P., and Potter, Parker B., Jr., eds. The Recovery of Meaning: Historical Archaeology in the Eastern United States. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988. Neiman, Frazer D. The "Manner House" Before Stratford (Discovering the Clifts Plantation). Stratford: A Stratford Handbook, 1980. Noel-Hume, Ivor. Historical Archaeology. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969. __________. A Guide to Artifacts of Colonial America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970. __________. Martin's Hundred. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982. (Dell paperback, 1983) Schuyler, Robert L., ed. Historical Archaeology: A Guide to Substantive and Theoretical Contributions. Baywood Pubs. Co., Inc., 1978. Singleton, Theresa, ed. The Archaeology of Slavery and Plantation Life. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1985. Conservation and PreservationBachmann, Konstanze, ed. Conservation Concerns: A Guide for Collectors and Curators. 1992. University Products, Inc., Dept. F117, 517 Main St., P.O. Box 101, Holyoke, MA 01041-0101. Ethnographic and Archaeological Conservation in the United States. Washington, D.C.: National Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Property, Inc., 1984. Goodyear, Frank H. Archaeological Site Science. New York: American Elsevier Pub. Co., 1971. Kenworthy, Mary Ann, et al., Preserving Field Records: Archival Techniques for Archaeologists and Anthropologists. 1985. University Products, Inc., Dept. F117, 517 Main St., P.O. Box 101, Holyoke, MA 01041-0101. National Committee to Save America's Cultural Collections. Caring for Your Collection. 1992. University Products, Inc., Dept. F117, 517 Main St., P.O. Box 101, Holyoke, MA 01041-0101. Rose, Carolyn and de Torres, Amparo D., eds. Storage of Natural History Collections: Ideas and Practical Solutions. 1992. University Products, Inc., Dept. F117, 517 Main St., P.O. Box 101, Holyoke, MA 01041-0101. A Suggested Curriculum for Training in Ethnographic and Archaeological Conservation. Washington, D.C.: National Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Property. Timmons, Sharon, ed. Preservation and Conservation: Principles and Practices. (Proceedings of the North American International Regional Conference, Williamsburg, Va. and Philadelphia, Pa., September 10-16, 1972.) D.C. National Trust for Historic Preservation: The Preservation Press, 1976. JournalsAmerican Antiquity. Journal of the Society for American Archaeology, 1703 New Hampshire Ave., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20009. (New World Archaeology) American Anthropologist. Journal of the American Anthropological Association, 4350 North Fairfax Dr., Suite 640, Arlington, VA 22203-1621. (New and Old World Anthropology) American Journal of Archaeology. American Journal of Archaeology, Archaeological Institute of America, 656 Beacon St., Boston, Massachusetts 02215-2010. (Old World Archaeology) Antiquity. Antiquity Publications Ltd., W. Heffer and Sons, Cambridge, England CB2 1LW (mainly Old World Archaeology) Archaeology. Archaeology Magazine, Subscription Service, P. O. Box 420423, Palm Coast, FL 32142-0423; or call (800) 829-5122. (The March/April issue features an archaeology travel guide to site available to the public in the Old World--Africa, Europe, the Pacific, Asia, South and Central America, and Middle and Near East. The May/June issue cover archaeological sites in the New World--Canada, Mexico, and the United States.) Journal of Field Archaeology. Association of Field Archaeology. Published by Boston University, 745 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, Massachusetts 02215. North American Archaeologist. Baywood Publishing Co., 121 Main St., P.O. Box D, Farmingdale, New York 11735. World Archaeology. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 68-74 Carter Lane, London EC4. ANTHROPOLOGY OUTREACH OFFICE, DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY, NATIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1995
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